What is the issue?
This review evaluated if there are beneficial effects of supplementing pregnant women with more than the current vitamin D recommendation (200 international units/day (IU/d) to 600 IU/d) on pregnancy and neonatal health outcomes and to evaluate if there are negative health effects when using more than the current upper limit recommendation (4000 IU/d).
Why is this important?
Vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy compared to no supplementation appears to decrease the risk of pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, low birthweight and may reduce the risk of severe postpartum haemorrhage. However, it is not clear if doses greater than the currently recommended level are needed to observe these health benefits, and if giving more than the upper limit is related to adverse events.
What was studied in the review?
This review included trials evaluating the effect of different vitamin D regimens (doses, frequencies, duration, and times of commencement) to compare the effects of 601 IU/d or more versus 600 IU/d or less and 4000 IU/d or more versus 3999 IU/d or less, of vitamin D alone or with any other nutrient on pregnancy and neonatal health outcomes.
What evidence did we find?
Evidence from 19 trials involving 5214 women suggest that supplementation with 601 IU/d or more of vitamin D during pregnancy may reduce the risk of gestational diabetes but may make little or no difference to the risk of pre-eclampsia, preterm birth or low birthweight compared to women receiving 600 IU/d or less.
Evidence from 15 trials involving 4763 women suggests that supplementation with 4000 IU/d or more of vitamin D during pregnancy may make little or no difference to the risk of pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, preterm birth or low birthweight compared to women receiving 3999 IU/d or less.
Adverse events were reported differently in most trials; in general, there was little to no side effects reported or similar cases between groups.
What does this mean?
Supplementing pregnant women with more than the current vitamin D recommendation may reduce the risk of gestational diabetes; however, it may make little or no difference in the risk of the other outcomes. Supplementing pregnant women with more than the current upper limit for vitamin D seems not to increase the risk of the outcomes evaluated. Vitamin D supplementation appears to be safe.
Supplementing pregnant women with more than the current vitamin D recommendation may reduce the risk of gestational diabetes; however, it may make little or no difference to the risk of pre-eclampsia, preterm birth and low birthweight. Supplementing pregnant women with more than the current upper limit for vitamin D seems not to increase the risk of the outcomes evaluated. In general, the GRADE was considered low certainty for most of the primary outcomes due to serious risk of bias and imprecision of results. With respect to safety, it appears that vitamin D supplementation is a safe intervention during pregnancy, although the parameters used to determine this were either not reported or not consistent between trials. Future trials should be consistent in their reports of adverse events. There are 16 ongoing trials that when published, will increase the body of knowledge.
Vitamin D deficiency during pregnancy increases the risk of pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, preterm birth, and low birthweight. In a previous Cochrane Review we found that supplementing pregnant women with vitamin D alone compared to no vitamin D supplementation may reduce the risk of pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, and low birthweight and may increase the risk of preterm births if it is combined with calcium. However the effects of different vitamin D regimens are not yet clear.
To assess the effects and safety of different regimens of vitamin D supplementation alone or in combination with calcium or other vitamins, minerals or nutrients during pregnancy, specifically doses of 601 international units per day (IU/d) or more versus 600 IU/d or less; and 4000 IU/d or more versus 3999 IU/d or less.
We searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth’s Trials Register, ClinicalTrials.gov, the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) (12 July 2018), and the reference lists of retrieved studies.
Randomised trials evaluating the effect of different vitamin D regimens (dose, frequency, duration, and time of commencement of supplementation during pregnancy), alone or in combination with other nutrients on pregnancy and neonatal health outcomes. We only included trials that compared 601 IU/d or more versus 600 IU/d or less and 4000 IU/d or more versus 3999 IU/d or less. We did not include in the analysis groups that received no vitamin D, as that comparison is assessed in another Cochrane Review.
Two review authors independently: i) assessed the eligibility of studies against the inclusion criteria; ii) extracted data from included studies, and iii) assessed the risk of bias of the included studies. Our primary maternal outcomes were: pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, and any adverse effects; our primary infant outcomes were preterm birth and low birthweight. Data were checked for accuracy. The certainty of the evidence was assessed using the GRADE approach.
In this review, we included data from 30 trials involving 7289 women. We excluded 11 trials, identified 16 ongoing/unpublished trials and two trials are awaiting classification. Overall risk of bias for the trials was mixed.
Comparison 1. 601 IU/d or more versus 600 IU/d or less of vitamin D alone or with any other nutrient (19 trials; 5214 participants)
Supplementation with 601 IU/d or more of vitamin D during pregnancy may make little or no difference to the risk of pre-eclampsia (risk ratio (RR) 0.96, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.65 to 1.42); 5 trials; 1553 participants, low-certainty evidence), may reduce the risk of gestational diabetes (RR 0.54, 95% CI 0.34 to 0.86; 5 trials; 1846 participants; moderate-certainty evidence), may make little or no difference to the risk of preterm birth (RR 1.25, 95% CI 0.92 to 1.69; 4 trials; 2294 participants; low-certainty evidence); and may make little or no difference to the risk of low birthweight (RR 0.90, 95% CI 0.66 to 1.24; 4 trials; 1550 participants; very low-certainty evidence) compared to women receiving 600 IU/d or less.
Comparison 2. 4000 IU or more versus 3999 IU or less of vitamin D alone (15 trials; 4763 participants)
Supplementation with 4000 IU/d or more of vitamin D during pregnancy may make little or no difference to the risk of: pre-eclampsia (RR 0.87, 95% CI 0.62 to 1.22; 4 trials, 1903 participants, low-certainty evidence); gestational diabetes (RR 0.89, 95% CI 0.56 to 1.42; 5 trials, 2276 participants; low-certainty evidence); preterm birth (RR 0.85, 95% CI 0.64 to 1.12; 6 trials, 2948 participants, low-certainty evidence); and low birthweight (RR 0.92, 95% CI 0.49 to 1.70; 2 trials; 1099 participants; low-certainty evidence) compared to women receiving 3999 IU/d or less.
Adverse events (such as hypercalcaemia, hypocalcaemia, hypercalciuria, and hypovitaminosis D) were reported differently in most trials; however, in general, there was little to no side effects reported or similar cases between groups.